Physical and Psychological Violence in Dating Adolescents: Who are the Victims?

Background: Dating violence is experienced by many adolescents. It's just that it is considered normal because of commitment in dating relationships. This study examines forms of dating violence, intending to get an overview of the most dominant forms of dating violence experienced by male and female. Method: The type of research used is quantitative research with a cross-sectional approach. The research sample consisted of 313 adolescents aged 18-24 years who had or were in a dating relationship and had or were experiencing violence during a dating relationship. Researchers collected primary data using courtship violence instruments. Results: The dominant frequency of victims experiencing physical and psychological violence was in the frequent category, namely 31.0% (26.8% female and 4.2% male). Meanwhile, in the very frequent category, the number of victims experiencing physical and psychological violence was 17% (15.4% female and 1.6% male). The type of violence experienced by adolescents was psychological violence in the very high category of 40% (underestimating, demanding, getting angry when reprimanded, limiting associations, limiting male friends, not respecting feelings, bringing up the past, and saying hurtful things). The high category was experienced for psychological violence, as much as 22.5% (underestimated partner,


INTRODUCTION
Dating violence refers to deviant physical, sexual, and psychological behavior in romantic relationships between adolescents.At least 1 in 11 female and 1 in 15 male students reported having experienced physical violence during a date in the past year (Center Control of Disease, 2019).In Indonesia, the prevalence of dating violence continues to increase.The Office of Female's Empowerment, Child Protection and Population Control (DP3AP2) of the Special Region of Yogyakarta (DIY) reported 890 cases of domestic violence in 2019, 671 cases in 2020, and 369 cases in 2021(DP3AP2c, 2021).The amount of violence against female in DIY occurs at 18-25 years old.While the City of Yogyakarta showed the highest number compared to other regions starting in 2019 with 73 cases, in 2020, there was an increase of 141 cases, and in 2021 there were only 83 cases recorded (DP3AP2b, 2021).
Acts of violence in dating are prone to occur in adolescents.The forms of violence experienced by adolescents during courtship tend not to be recognized and understood.The form of violence that occurs in dating relationships can be in the form of physical, psychological, sexual violence to economic violence.Events of dating violence have physical and psychological impacts that can damage the health and well-being of adolescents.Consequences of physical violence include minor cuts, bruises, and serious injuries such as broken bones that require treatment.Psychological violence can negatively affect social adjustment for victims.Psychological consequences such as trauma, fear, low self-esteem, depressive symptoms, anxiety, mood swings, difficulty concentrating, low academic achievement, feeling hurt, having sleep problems (Lestari et al., 2022;Martz et al., 2016;Sabila et al., 2022;Taquette & Monteiro, 2019).Losses on the side of social relations (relationship satisfaction, attachment) and sexual (relationship satisfaction, sexual communication) can also impact male and female, except for losses on the side of sexuality.The impact of these losses is more on female than male (Joel et al., 2018).
Dating violence is not only experienced by females but also by males.However, some findings show that females have a higher rate of dating violence than males (Taylor & Xia, 2020).Some literature emphasizes that comparing dating violence experienced by males and females needs further analysis (Luo, 2021;Ruel et al., 2018).The urgency of this research is that adolescents who experience various forms of dating violence are considered normal because of commitment in dating relationships.So, this study aims to examine the dominant forms of dating violence experienced by males and females.

Sampling and Research Design
This study uses a type of quantitative research with a cross-sectional approach.This study examines forms of dating violence to get an overview of the most dominant forms of dating violence experienced by male and female.The research sample consisted of 313 adolescents aged 18-24 years who had or were in a dating relationship and had or were experiencing violence while in a dating relationship.Researchers collected primary data using the instrument of dating violence in the form of a Likert scale.

Instruments and Data Analysis
The violence that occurs among dating adolescents is evaluated using the Physical and Psychological Violence Victims (PPVV) scale developed by Ayu et al., (2023).The PPVV scale consists of 40 items, and each item uses a 4-point Likert rating scale, from 0 (Never) to 3 (Always).Data on dating violence among adolescents were analyzed using Winsteps 4.6.1 software.Before evaluating violent incidents, the quality of the items on the PPVV scale was analyzed.The quality of the PPVV scale is reviewed from the person and item aspects.The violence that occurred was evaluated using the Wright map combined with the Logit Value of Person (LVP) (Ramdhan et al., 2022;Sukarelawan et al., 2022).Combining these two techniques makes it possible to map violent incidents in detail.Then specifically, the trend of violence is viewed from the gender aspect using Differential Item Functioning (DIF).

PPVV Scale Quality
The quality of the PPVV scale used has displayed statistical values in Table 1.Based on Table 1, the number of respondents used was 313 of the 350 respondents involved.A total of 37 respondents were excluded from the analysis because they did have extreme values and did not fit the Rasch model.Person and item reliability in the PPVV scale used were 0.83 and 0.97, respectively.Meanwhile, Cronbach's Alpha value is 0.94.These three indicators of reliability show consistency in response patterns and good interactions between person and item.The sensitivity of the PPVV scale can be seen from the value of separation or strata.Based on Rasch's modeling, the respondents involved can be grouped into 3 to 4 levels.Meanwhile, items can be grouped into eight levels.Figure 1 (Wright map on the right) explains that victims of dating violence in terms of gender are grouped into four categories: very often, often, sometimes, and rarely.The frequency of victims who experience physical and psychological violence is dominant in the frequent category, namely 31.0%(26.8% female and 4.2% male).Meanwhile, in the very frequent category, the number of victims experiencing physical and psychological violence was 17% (15.4% female and 1.6% male).Meanwhile, victims who experienced physical and psychological violence in the other two categories (sometimes and rarely) had almost the same percentage, namely 26.0% (23.0%female and 3.0% male).
Trends in physical and psychological violence based on gender.
Based on the probability value, it was identified that nine violence items tended to the male and female gender.The trend of cross-gender violence is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 illustrates the trendline of violence tendencies in terms of gender.The tendency of violent incidents is determined using Differential Item Functioning (DIF).The symbol "L" represents the violence experienced by male, the symbol "P" represents female, and the symbol "*" represents the average.Based on Figure 2, it was identified that four items of physical violence (F3, F9, F11, and F12) and five items of psychological violence (P1, P6, P14, P17, and P20) tend to be more easily experienced by certain genders.
If we focus on the types of physical violence, it appears that male are more dominant in experiencing violence in the four types of violence.Physical violence F9 ("biting") is a form of violence that male more easily experience, and violence F11 ("Punch") -is a form of violence that is relatively difficult to experience from the other three items of violence (F3, F9, and F12).While in the type of psychological violence, female are more dominant in experiencing four forms of violence, except for the P17 form of violence ("bringing up the past").Violence P6 ("limiting male friends") is a form of violence that easily occurs to female, and Q14 ("rough") is a form of violence that is relatively more difficult than other forms of violence (P1, P6, P17, and P20) experienced by a woman.Dating violence is prone to occur in adolescents.Dating violence as a form of deviation is not realized and understood by many teenagers.The forms of violence in dating relationships can be from physical, psychological, and sexual violence to economic violence.The results of this study indicate that both male and female can experience forms of dating violence.Males have a tendency to experience physical violence, while female experience psychological violence more easily.Previous studies have stated that dating violence is experienced by female and male, even though the rate of dating violence is lower than violence against female (Taylor & Xia, 2020;Valdivia-Salas et al., 2021;Vives-Cases et al., 2021).
Female tend to experience violence more often than male.However, in this study, dating violence was experienced by both male and female.The results of this study indicate that males are more likely to experience violence in the form of physical violence (bitten, scratched, dropped from vehicles, punched) while female are dominantly victims of psychological violence (underestimated, brought up about the past, restricted from being friends with male, accepted hurtful words).The study's results Mason-Jones et al., (2016) stated that male reported experiencing more physical violence than female.Items of physical violence experienced by male include being bitten, hit, slapped, grabbed, and pushed by partners (Maria & Sakti, 2021;Rini, 2022).However, male also admit that they often experience forms of verbal and emotional violence in aggressive relationships (Rihandita, 2018).Forms of violence experienced such as partners bringing up the past, partners limiting male friends, partners being rude and possessive, always being blamed by partners when there is a fight in the relationship (Sholikhah & Masykur, 2020), insulted, insulted by partners (Mayasari & Rinaldi, 2017), yelled at, blamed by the partner, words that hurt the victim psychologically (Dewi, 2021;Rini, 2022).
Violence received by victims, both physically and psychologically, is due to the partner's inability to fulfill the boyfriend's demands, which can lead to conflict between the couple, leading to violence.Dissatisfaction with a partner can cause the strength of the relationship to weaken so that it is easier to commit physical, psychological, or sexual violence against their partner (Toplu-Demirtaş & Frank D. Fincham, 2020).Jealousy of a partner, miscommunication, lying, emotions, and feeling weak are also predicted as the cause of violence (Jailani & Nurasiah, 2021;Maria & Sakti, 2021;Sholikhah & Masykur, 2020).
Dating is also considered a form of ownership that gives rise to instincts to control and control one's partner.The nature of male dominating and female being dominated is a characteristic of patriarchal culture which can increase male's acceptance of dating violence (You & Shin, 2022).Males are naturally aggressive and strong, while females are fragile and helpless.There is an imbalance in power relations between male and female, causing female to be seen as weak and dependent on male so that they easily experience oppression by their partners (Prasetya & Rahman, 2020;Rifa'at & Farid, 2019;Wahyuni et al., 2020).Often, this dominant relationship that justifies violence in certain situations is not felt, even in cases where physical violence is sometimes considered normal in a dating relationship.
Violence in dating tends to be seen as a normal thing to be accepted as a risk of dating.Generally, individuals will try to escape from the perpetrators of violence.However, this does not apply to some people who experience dating violence.Psychologically, female choose to stay in abusive relationships because of love.This is in line with the theory of Stockholm syndrome, which states that a person will maintain a dating relationship because there is a strong bond between the victim and the perpetrator of violence, such as love for the perpetrator, protecting the perpetrator who has committed violence, blaming himself as the cause of violence and denying the violence that occurred (Ahmad et al., 2018;Logan, 2018).
The decision to maintain dating relationships for female is because they get comfort from their partner, their partner fulfills their needs, and they have had sexual intercourse so that the victim has a fear that no man will accept her if she ends the relationship with her partner (Sholikhah & Masykur, 2020), feelings of love, unwillingness to start new relationships with male/new people, commitment, the good side of partners, families who already know each other, intimacy and commitment from partners (Dewi, 2021;Sari, 2018), dependence on partners where the more If many victims depend on their partner, it will be less likely to end the relationship (Joel et al., 2018).Whereas male maintain relationships because they think that no one will accept them other than their partners, feel comfortable, love the length of their relationship, and have had sexual intercourse (Maria & Sakti, 2021).

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
This study generally shows that both male and female can experience dating violence.The frequency of male experiencing dating violence is smaller than that of female.Males are more dominant in experiencing physical violence, namely being bitten by a partner, scratched, dropped from a vehicle is an item of physical violence that is easily experienced, while being punched by a partner is an item of physical violence that is difficult to experience.Meanwhile, female are more dominant in experiencing psychological violence.Items of violence that are more easily experienced by female are being belittled by partners, partners limit male friends, partners bring up past problems and partners say hurtful things, while partners say harsh things is an item of psychological violence that is difficult to experience.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Trends in physical and psychological violence by gender

Table 1
Statistical Summary Based on Rasch model Parameters Pattern of distribution of physical and psychological violence based on gender Figure 1.Wright map of the distribution of physical and psychological violence by gender